Solar storms are massive bursts of plasma and magnetic fields ejected from the Sun’s corona into space. Their speed can range from 250 km/s to over 3,000 km/s

Proton density is measured using space-based instruments such as plasma analyzers onboard satellites like NASA's ACE (Advanced Composition Explorer) or DSCOVR (Deep Space Climate Observatory).

The Kp Index is a global geomagnetic activity index that quantifies disturbances in the Earth's magnetic field caused by solar activity. It is widely used in space weather forecasting to assess the intensity of geomagnetic storms

The 10.7 cm Radio Flux (F10.7) is a measure of solar radio emissions at a wavelength of 10.7 centimeters (frequency: 2800 MHz). It is a key indicator of solar activity and serves as a proxy for the Sun's magnetic activity and the amount of ultraviolet (UV) and X-ray radiation emitted.

Solar flares can produce plasma temperatures of up to 10 million Kelvin or more. This extreme heat is generated by the acceleration of particles in the Sun's intense magnetic fields

Bz is the north–south component of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF). When Bz turns southward (negative), it reconnects with Earth’s magnetic field, allowing solar energy to enter the magnetosphere and increasing the likelihood of geomagnetic storms and auroras.

Bt is the total strength of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF). Higher Bt means stronger magnetic energy carried by the solar wind. When Bt increases—especially with negative Bz—the likelihood and intensity of geomagnetic storms, auroras, and space-weather disturbances rise significantly

Radio blackout storm refers to a space-weather event—usually caused by strong solar flares—where intense X-ray and extreme-UV radiation ionizes Earth’s upper atmosphere (ionosphere). This sudden ionization disrupts high-frequency (HF) radio communication, GPS accuracy, aviation signals, and sometimes shortwave radio worldwide, especially on the dayside of Earth.

Earth’s magnetic field varies due to solar wind and IMF interactions. Measurements in nanotesla (nT) typically range from 40 to 140 nT. Lower values indicate calm conditions, while higher variations signal geomagnetic disturbances, often during storms or enhanced solar activity.

A solar electron storm occurs when the Sun emits a large flux of high-energy electrons, usually during solar flares or coronal mass ejections. These electrons travel along magnetic field lines, reaching Earth within minutes to hours, potentially disrupting satellites, spacecraft electronics, and high-frequency radio communications

A solar radio storm occurs when solar flares or CMEs emit intense radio waves. These bursts can disrupt HF radio, GPS signals, and radar systems, especially on Earth’s dayside. Storms are classified by intensity and may last minutes to hours.